Bodies of Tamil fishermen massacred by the Sri Lankan Navy while the men were at work in Palk Strait. These are the victims of more than 100 massacres carried out by either the Sri Lankan security forces or the Tamil resistance.

　　The bodies of Tamil fishermen who were engaged in fishing in the Palk Strait and were massacred by the Sri Lankan Navy. These are victims of over 100 massacres carried out by either Sri Lankan security forces or Tamil resistance groups. Tamils constitute 12.7% of Sri Lanka's population, and the main guerrilla organization, the LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam), emerged from the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF).

　　The Palk Strait, between India's Tamil Nadu state and Sri Lanka's northern Mannar district, became a frequent site of massacres and violent incidents involving Tamil fishermen throughout the Sri Lankan Civil War (1983–2009), continuing until 2025. During the Sri Lankan civil war, massacres of Tamil civilians by Sri Lankan security forces exceeded 100 incidents. The estimated death toll of Tamil civilians, up to the 2009 Murivaiyakal massacre, ranged from 40,000 to over 100,000.

　　The Mandayiv Sea Massacre (June 10, 1986) was part of the larger Parak Strait Massacre. Sri Lankan naval soldiers attacked 33 Tamil fishermen off Mandayiv, torturing many victims by gouging out their eyeballs or slashing their abdomens. Thirty-two died, with only one survivor. In the Kumdini Massacre (May 15, 1985), at least 23 Sri Lankan Tamils aboard the ferry Kumdini were hacked to death by Sri Lankan Navy soldiers while sailing between Delft Island and Nainativu Island. The Jaffna Lagoon/Killari Massacre (January 2, 1993) saw between 35 and 100 Tamil civilians killed in an attack by the Sri Lankan Navy. The Murativi Fishermen Massacre (December 9, 1984) resulted in the killing of 18 Tamil fishermen by the Sri Lankan Home Guard.

In March 1921, when German workers' struggles erupted, police arbitrarily dragged workers away, beating and shooting them in front of silos. Over 50 workers were brutally murdered inside and in front of silos.

 　In March 1921, the struggle of hundreds of thousands of German workers erupted, and the German workers suffered a bloody defeat. Police arbitrarily dragged workers away, beating and shooting them in front of the silos. Over 50 workers were killed inside or in front of the silos. The workers were brutally murdered by the Sipo. The large silo at Building 140 became a terrifying prison for 2,000 Leuna miners for days on end. The SIPO, composed of the Gestapo and Criminal Police, was part of the Security Service (SD). 

　　Leuna was one of Germany's largest chemical industrial complexes. There were only 160 sets of tableware for the silos. Initially, leaving the premises was forbidden. Later, prisoners were forced to endure humiliating marches led by guards. The captives became prime targets for criticism and attacks. On March 29, 1921, at 6:50 AM, German Reichswehr artillery positioned in front of the Leuna factory began shelling the Leuna plant. Around 8:00 AM, the Sipo assault on the Leuna factory commenced. Workers at the Leuna factory put up fierce resistance, but their defense collapsed due to a lack of ammunition.

　　Sipo and the German Imperial Defense Forces committed countless murders against the defenseless workers who had become prisoners. At the Leuna factory, 42 workers were beaten to death by the security police. At the Schlaßlau limestone quarry, six uninvolved workers were shot dead. An official investigation reported that 72 workers had been killed. Meanwhile, the workers shot only one person, the landowner Hess. The Home Guard fired on the workers' units from behind, from houses. The civilian shooters got away with only being slapped or punched by the workers. After the occupation of the Leuna factory, only sporadic fighting occurred. The workers became isolated and exhausted. They hardly responded to the general strike.

During the Sino-Soviet border conflict, on March 2, 1969, Soviet forces attacked the positions of a Chinese battalion on Damansky Island. The Chinese positions collapsed, and the bodies of Chinese soldiers were scattered across the snow.

    During the Sino-Soviet border conflict, on March 2, 1969, Soviet forces attacked the positions of a Chinese battalion on Damansky Island. The Chinese positions collapsed, and the bodies of Chinese soldiers were scattered across the snow. In the March 2 battle, the Chinese side reported 29 casualties, while the Soviet side reported 58 casualties. The Soviet side reported that 248 Chinese soldiers died on the island and the frozen river. Soviet border guards suffered 32 dead and 14 wounded. The conflict lasted from March 2, 1969, to September 11, 1969.

   The Sino-Soviet border conflict of March 1969 primarily involved severe armed clashes on the Ussuri River at Damansky Island. Cold War tensions between the two communist superpowers reached their peak. The situation escalated to the brink of nuclear war. On March 2, 1969, Chinese forces ambushed and attacked Soviet border guards on Zhenbao Island (Russian: Damansky Island), killing dozens of Soviet soldiers. The conflict stemmed from differing interpretations of the 1960 Beijing Treaty. On March 15, large-scale bloody combat erupted. Heavy artillery fire was employed, involving thousands of soldiers and resulting in heavy casualties on both sides (approximately 70 per army). The Soviet Union hinted at nuclear retaliation, while China placed its emerging nuclear forces on high alert. During the fighting, Chinese forces captured a Soviet-made T-62 tank, later reverse-engineering it to develop China's Type 69 tank.

  The crisis of the Sino-Soviet border conflict was resolved diplomatically by September 1969. The conflict convinced Chinese leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, and Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, that the threat was real. This significantly accelerated China's strategic pivot, leading to secret contacts with the United States and ultimately culminating in President Nixon's historic visit to China in 1972. For the first time, China fully mobilized its nuclear forces, anticipating a surprise attack.

On the Western Front during World War I, the bodies of three German soldiers who had been killed in action were scattered among the ruins of the trenches at the Battle of Passchendaele on July 31, 1917.

      On the Western Front during World War I, the bodies of three German soldiers who had been killed in action lay scattered among the ruins of the trenches at the Battle of Passchendaele on July 31, 1917. The bodies of German soldiers tangled and knotted together like a hellish torrent, reaching all the way to the earthen embankments of the trenches. They were buried in a mass of chaos within the mud-filled trenches. Bodies fixed among others, bodies impaled on others, were scattered across the grim terrain. 

   The Battle of Passchendaele (the Third Battle of Ypres) was fought on the Western Front during World War I from July 31 to November 6, 1917. Both the Allied and German forces suffered immense casualties, plunging the battle into a horrific state of mud and blood. In 1917, the Allies planned an offensive to break through the Ypres Salient, held by the Entente since 1914, aiming to create a decisive breakthrough. The strategy involved capturing the high ground around Ypres, seizing the crucial railway junction further east, and then invading the German-held Belgian coastal ports, vital for U-boat operations. The fighting in the Passchendaele area lasted over 100 days, during which the Allies advanced a mere 8 km. A total of 325,000 Allied and 260,000 German soldiers were killed, wounded, or went missing. Among the Allied casualties, 38,000 were Australian soldiers, 5,300 were New Zealanders, and over 15,600 were Canadians.

   The Battle of Passchendaele, which began on July 31, saw relentless shelling churn the clay soil and destroy drainage systems. Within days, the heaviest rainfall in 30 years turned the ground into a quagmire, producing thick mud that jammed guns and immobilized tanks. The mud soon deepened, drowning soldiers and horses alike. Hundreds of thousands of troops from both sides repeatedly attacked and counterattacked across the gray, open terrain—barely offering any buildings or natural cover—plowing through the porridge-like mud amid exploding shells, flying shrapnel, machine-gun fire, and relentless, torrential rain.

The bodies of two U.S. Army soldiers, killed by Wild Bill Hickok, the lawless territory's sheriff, fell onto the sidewalk in Hays, Kansas.

 　The bodies of two U.S. Army soldiers, killed by Wild Bill Hickok, the lawless town's sheriff, fell onto the sidewalk in Hays, Kansas. Between 1867 and 1873, Hays, Kansas, saw thirty murders. This included the death of a soldier from Fort Hays, a U.S. Army fort, during a saloon shootout. The cemetery north of town, known as “Boot Hill,” buried the bodies of approximately 79 outlaws by 1885. Hays City, the county seat of Kansas, was a notorious town as a railroad terminus, attracting gamblers, brawlers, soldiers, buffalo hunters, prostitutes, and gunmen.

　　Wild Bill Hickok, with a background as a scout during the Civil War, served as a deputy federal marshal from 1867 to 1870 and later as sheriff in lawless towns like Hays City and Abilene. Hickok's reputation for gunfights and his efforts to maintain order earned him legendary status. In 1876, he was fatally wounded while playing poker in Deadwood, South Dakota. On August 2, 1876, Jack McCall shot Wild Bill Hickok in the back of the head while he was playing poker at a local saloon. 

　　Gun control and standing police forces in the West during the 20th century were effective in curbing violence. Although there were gunmen, no cattle town had more than five murders per year. The only people killed in cattle ranch towns were Hardin and Earp. Hardin, while drunk, shot through the wall of his hotel room and killed a snoring man. Earp, as a law enforcement officer, accidentally killed two people, one of whom was a special constable. The average number of murders per year in cattle ranch towns was only 1.5.

The Battle of Limanowa in December 1914 saw brutal hand-to-hand combat unfold in the forested mountainous terrain. At a mass grave in the Limanowa Forest near Mordarka, Russian troops exhumed the bodies of their fallen soldiers.

    On the Eastern Front of World War I, the Battle of Limanowa in December 1914 saw brutal hand-to-hand combat unfold in the forested mountainous terrain. At a mass grave in the Limanowa Forest near Mordarka, Russian troops exhumed the bodies of their fallen comrades. Hungarian soldiers fought fiercely against the Russians, using their rifle butts as clubs. Broken rifles lay scattered, and the bodies of Russian soldiers with shattered skulls littered the ground. 

   The Russian Third Army advanced rapidly westward, closing in on Kraków, an important Austrian fortress city. The Austro-Hungarian Army executed a bold and dangerous operation to reverse their disadvantage, creating a gap between the Russian 4th and 3rd Armies and luring the Russians in. While the Russian forces were concentrated in the west, they deployed the Roth Corps from the south, launching a surprise attack on the Russian left flank to encircle and annihilate them.

    The Battle of Limanowa raged fiercely from December 1 to 13, 1914, around Limanowa and Wapienica in southern Poland. From December 1 to 5, the Austro-Hungarian Army, reinforced by German troops, began its advance on Limanowa. The Russian Army, underestimating the threat from the flank, persisted with its frontal assault on Krakow. From December 6 to 10, the Roth Corps struck the flank of the Russian Third Army, sparking fierce fighting. 

    The Austro-Hungarian forces were composed of multi-ethnic units, including Austrians, Hungarians, and the Polish Legions fighting for Polish independence. The terrain was rugged, forcing many cavalrymen to dismount and fight as infantry. The bloody battle on the hills of Jabłonowiec erupted on December 11-12. 

   The fighting culminated on the hills of Jabłonowiec near Limanowa. Russian reinforcements arrived, pushing the Austrian front to the brink of collapse. Hungarian hussars and units like the 9th and 13th Regiments engaged the Russians in hand-to-hand combat, suffering heavy casualties but pushing the Russians back and holding the hill at all costs. From December 13th, the Russian army was in retreat. With their flanks threatened and supply lines cut, the Russians finally ordered a full withdrawal, ending the threat to Krakow. 

　 

On May 13, 1943, German military doctors allowed Allied prisoners of war to observe the autopsies of victims killed by Soviet forces in the Katyn Forest, as part of the International Katyn Investigation.

    On May 13, 1943, German military doctors allowed Allied prisoners of war to observe the autopsies of victims killed by Soviet forces in the Katyn Forest, as part of the International Katyn Investigation. On the left is the German forensic scientist who chaired the Katyn massacre investigation. On March 5, 1940, Soviet authorities decided to execute more than 21,000 Polish nationals who had been taken prisoner after the Soviet invasion of Poland. The executions were carried out by the NKVD, the Soviet political police.

   After the discovery of the mass graves in the Katyn Forest was announced on April 11, 1943, Lieutenant Colonel Van Fleet Jr. was selected, along with Lieutenant Colonel Stuart and Lieutenant Colonel Frank Parker Stephenson, at Oflag IX/AZ to participate in the International Katyn Commission's exhumation work in the Katyn Forest. On May 13, 1943, Allied prisoners of war participated in the activities of the International Katyn Commission, viewing many exhibits and witnessing the autopsies.

   It was determined that the massacre in the Katyn Forest included more than 25,000 Poles. The breakdown was 8,000 officers, 6,000 police officers, and 8,000 civilians, including priests, rabbis, nobles, and professionals. Additionally, 14 generals, 1 admiral, 24 colonels, 79 lieutenant colonels, 17 naval captains, 3,000 non-commissioned officers, civilians, civil servants, intellectuals, and 200 pilots—including Janina Lewandowska, the first female pilot in the Polish Army—were also among the victims.

On October 9, 1983, a bombing terrorist attack occurred at the Aung San Memorial in Rangoon, Burma (now Myanmar). Perpetrated by North Korea, the bombing resulted in a major catastrophe: over 20 fatalities, including 17 South Koreans (4 cabinet ministers) and 4 Burmese nationals, with over 47 injured.

     On October 9, 1983, a bombing terrorist attack occurred at the Aung San Memorial in Rangoon, Burma (now Myanmar). Caused by North Korean bombers, it killed South Korean cabinet ministers, while President Chun Doo-hwan narrowly escaped the crisis. The bombing occurred at night in the capital Rangoon, carried out by North Korean operatives. It targeted the assassination of South Korean President Chun Doo-hwan and his entourage, who were on an official visit to Burma. Numerous people, including South Korean cabinet ministers, were killed. The incident led to the severance of diplomatic relations between Burma and North Korea.

    At the time of the incident, the Chun Doo-hwan regime in South Korea, while facing domestic and international criticism for its military dictatorship, maintained a hardline stance toward North Korea. North Korea advanced its terrorist operations against the South, including plans to assassinate Chun Doo-hwan, and devised a plot to assassinate key figures during the Burma visit. Three operatives belonging to the North Korean military entered Burma aboard a cargo ship. With support from North Korean embassy personnel in Burma, they prepared for the crime within Rangoon. On the night of October 7, they installed a remote-controlled bomb in the attic of the Aung San Memorial, the tomb of the nation's founding father, General Aung San, planning to detonate it during the official visit on the 9th. 

     The bomb exploded around 10:25 a.m. local time, just as South Korean dignitaries, who had arrived ahead of President Chun Doo-hwan's party, were lining up in front of the memorial, causing part of the building to collapse. The blast killed numerous South Koreans, including several cabinet ministers, and also claimed the lives of Burmese ministers and government officials. The final death toll exceeded 20, with 17 South Koreans (including 4 ministers) and 4 Burmese, while over 47 people were injured, making it a major catastrophe. 

    President Chun Doo-hwan had not yet arrived at the shrine when the explosion occurred, narrowly escaping assassination by mere minutes. The South Korean government convened an emergency cabinet meeting that same day, declaring the incident an “organized conspiracy by North Korea” and ordering the military and police to enter a state of heightened alert. Burmese authorities pursued the fleeing operatives, killing one in a gunfight and capturing two others wounded. The operatives, Major Kim and Captain Kang, were subsequently executed. With North Korea's involvement now clear, the Burmese government strongly condemned the act of using the tomb of “Father of the Nation” Aung San as a stage for terrorism. On November 4 of the same year, Burma severed diplomatic relations with North Korea and revoked its state recognition. The Rangoon Incident demonstrated how Cold War tensions on the Korean Peninsula had expanded to involve third-country international terrorism, further cementing North Korea's status as a state sponsor of terrorism.

A relative carries the body of Palestinian infant Jabr Al-Ashhab, who was killed in an Israeli military strike, during his funeral outside Shifa Hospital in Gaza City, Thursday, Sept. 4, 2025.

2025年9月4日に、パレスティナのガザ市のシファ病院外で行われた葬儀で、親族がイスラエル軍の攻撃で死亡したパレスチナ人乳児ジャブル・アルアシュハブの遺体を運んだ。9月4日にガザ市のシファ病院によると、イスラエル軍の攻撃が避難民を収容するテントを直撃し、同病院には25体の遺体が搬送された。うち9体が子ども、6体が女性だった。死亡者の中には生後10日の乳児も含まれていた。カーンユーニスにあるナセル病院によれば、ガザ南部ではさらに3名が死亡した。

　 病院当局によると、9月4日のイスラエル軍による空爆で28人が死亡し、その大半が女性と子どもだった。イスラエル軍は飢餓に苦しむガザ市での攻撃を継続している。最新の攻撃は、イスラエル軍がガザ市の一部で作戦を展開中に、全市制圧を計画中のタイミングで発生した。パレスチナで最も人口の多いガザ都市には約100万人が居住しており、その多くは既に複数回にわたり避難を余儀なくされている。

　パレスチナ人の死者数が6万4000人を超えたと保健当局が発表して、イスラエルとハマスは要求を巡り対立を深めている。2025年9月4日にガザ地区でほぼ2年間続いた戦争で、パレスチナ人6万4千人が死亡したと現地保健当局が9月4日に発表した。ハマスとイスラエルは、武装組織による2023年の攻撃で勃発した戦闘終結に向け、互いに相容れない要求を改めて表明した。

Warning: A relative carries the body of Palestinian infant Jabr Al-Ashhab, who was killed in an Israeli military strike, during his funeral outside Shifa Hospital in Gaza City, Thursday, Sept. 4, 2025. (AP Photo/Jehad Alshrafi)

On October 23, 1923, the KPD (German Communist Party) launched an uprising in Hamburg, Germany. The KPD's “German October,” with corpses blocking the streets, was nothing more than a bloody farce.

    On October 23, 1923, the KPD (German Communist Party) launched an uprising in Hamburg, Germany. The KPD's “German October,” with corpses blocking the streets, was nothing more than a bloody farce. In Hamburg, an armed uprising by the Communist Party, known as the “Hamburg Uprising,” occurred from October 23 to October 29, 1923. This was carried out by the KPD under Soviet instructions, an attempt to spread the Soviet Revolution to Germany. 

    Amid worsening economic crisis and unemployment, at dawn on October 23, Communist Party members launched a surprise attack and seized a suburban guard post. They declared a “Soviet” in Schifbeck, attempting to block the security police.

     The plan anticipated a Ludendorff-style mass mobilization, but communication failures left them isolated and unsupported, leading to failure. The plan envisioned mass mobilization and the occupation of city halls, but workers demanded only bread and fat, refusing to support the revolution. Isolated by communication errors, the Social Democratic Party government banned and suppressed the KPD's party newspaper, allegedly deliberately inciting the rebellion.

    Shipyard stoppages, port strikes, and starvation fueled the coup. Workers demanded only bread and jobs, refusing to support revolution. After three days of gunfire, it failed. Casualties: ~100 dead (21 insurgents, 17 police, 61 bystanders), over 200 wounded, 1,400 arrested.

    The KPD communists' uprising lost its fanatical illusion. It cooled the revolutionary fervor of the masses. It concluded that the true social revolution lay in the liberation of workers from the state, criticizing the Weimar Republic's collapse of the empire and the SPD and KPD's stance of defending the state. The KPD prioritized imperial unity, refrained from targeting the wealthy, and neglected the starvation of workers.

On the Western Front during World War I, the body of a British soldier lay on the rim of a crater created by the blast of a German mine on June 6, 1916.

    On the Western Front during World War I, on June 6, 1916, the body of a British soldier lay killed at the edge of a crater marked by the blast of a German mine. The crater at Hooghe village in Flanders, Belgium, was created when the German army detonated the Kassels mine in 1916.

   During World War I, a mine explosion occurred near Ypres at Hooghe. Parts of the Hooghe area were devastated by relentless shelling. Belward Farm, positioned directly behind the German frontline trenches on the far left flank and targeted by the entire British attack, was reduced to ruins. The buildings of Hooge village were reduced to piles of rubble, and the protective woodland of Chateau Wood was shattered to pieces. The area around Hooge became the scene of fierce fighting, with frequent mine explosions by both sides thereafter. 

    On June 6, 1916, the German army detonated multiple mines near Hooge. They recaptured the area and the British front line. This was part of a series of attacks in the region; in 1915, the British also detonated large mines against the Germans. The first major crater at Hougue was created when the British detonated mines against the Germans on July 19, 1915, in response to German mine laying in February 1915. German mines in 1916 were detonated in June 1916 beneath British and Canadian positions in an attempt to recapture the area. The Hougue Crater Group was formed by British mine explosions beginning on July 19, 1915. The cluster of craters in this area resulted from repeated mine operations by both sides throughout the war.

During the Pacific War, on May 29, 1943, the Japanese garrison on Attu Island launched a banzai charge against the American forces and was completely annihilated. American soldiers stared at the corpses of Japanese soldiers lying on the ice and snow.

 　During the Pacific War, on May 29, 1943, Japanese garrison soldiers on Attu Island launched a Banzai charge against American forces, suffering total annihilation and dying in a last stand. American soldiers stared intently at the corpses of Japanese soldiers lying on the ice and snow. The Japanese military resisted the fierce American assault on Attu Island from May 11 to May 30, 1943. In the bitter cold and snow, a mere 2,500-strong Japanese garrison held out against the Americans. 

    Located at the western end of the Aleutian Islands, the Battle of Attu in the Pacific War began on June 7, 1942, when U.S. forces launched an operation to retake the American territory of Attu Island, which had been occupied by Japanese forces. In the final stages, the Japanese soldiers fought to the last man and were annihilated. Japan's Imperial General Headquarters was preoccupied with the Battle of Guadalcanal, leading to Attu being underestimated and neglected. 

   The U.S. forces suffered heavy casualties due to the blizzards on Attu and the fierce resistance of the Japanese troops. The Japanese forces carried out the first kamikaze assault of the Pacific War and were completely wiped out. American soldiers, lacking any experience in extreme cold and insufficiently trained in amphibious landing operations, were sent from warm sunshine to the bitter cold of the Aleutian Islands. The U.S. military had no surplus forces to spare for the Aleutian campaign. They bypassed Kiska Island, heavily defended by the Japanese, and invaded Attu Island, where rear defenses were thin.

   Cut off from retreat, the Japanese forces resolved to fight to the end. 2,650 Japanese soldiers defended Attu Island. After their final assault failed, 500 Japanese soldiers committed mass suicide by detonating grenades together on a mountainside, marking the bloody finale of this battle. The American forces suffered 549 combat deaths, while the Japanese forces saw 2,351 killed or committed suicide, with only 28 taken prisoner. The garrison on Kiska Island in the Aleutian Islands, facing certain doom, miraculously succeeded in escaping from the American forces.

The South Vietnamese Army's operation in the dense jungle near Ben Cat failed. Furthermore, South Vietnamese government soldiers were killed in action. As they withdrew across the flat, open wilderness in the evening, they carried the bodies of South Vietnamese government soldiers on stretchers.

    The South Vietnamese Army's operation in the dense jungle near Binh Cat failed. The South Vietnamese government forces withdrew to their base in the setting sun. More South Vietnamese government soldiers were killed in action. As they withdrew across the evening's flat wilderness, they carried the bodies of South Vietnamese government soldiers on stretchers.

　Ben Cat was a strategically important rural area and fire support base in Binh Duong Province, South Vietnam. During the Vietnam War, it was frequently the site of large-scale battles and military operations. Ben Cat was a key point in the Iron Triangle. Covered in forest and heavily fortified, it became a major stronghold for the Viet Cong (VC) and North Vietnamese Army (NVA).

   Throughout the Vietnam War, numerous U.S., Australian, South Vietnamese (ARVN), and allied forces were involved in operations around Binh Cat. In 1965, U.S. Army units were stationed there and suffered intense attacks from insurgents. U.S. forces arriving late in 1965 conducted mop-up operations along National Highway 13 between Lai Ke and Binh Cat.

Allied forces countered Viet Cong and North Vietnamese resistance with large-scale search-and-destroy operations, airborne assaults, and road-control operations. During the 1968 Tet Offensive, Ben Cat became a battleground for the nationwide Tet Offensive. The 1974 Battle of the Iron Triangle saw large-scale combat against invading North Vietnamese forces. With artillery support, the ARVN recaptured Binh Cat and other key positions after fierce fighting. Soldiers in Binh Cat faced harsh conditions and encountered landmines and booby traps.      

During the Battle of Teruel from December 15, 1937, to February 22, 1938, on the Angolan Front of the Spanish Civil War, the bodies of Republican soldiers killed by Nationalist forces on December 21, 1937, were scattered across the barren highlands.

   During the Battle of Teruel on the Angolan Front of the Spanish Civil War, on December 21, 1937, the bodies of Republican soldiers killed by Nationalist forces were scattered across the barren highlands. The Battle of Teruel in central-eastern Spain, fought from December 15, 1937, to February 22, 1938, was one of the fiercest and bloodiest battles of the Spanish Civil War, with Republican casualties exceeding 60,000 and Nationalist casualties exceeding 57,000.

     In the north, Nationalist forces held the advantage. Republican forces were committed south of Teruel starting December 18, where Nationalist troops had occupied and fortified positions. With Russian support providing 100 fighter planes and 100 tanks, they confronted the Nationalist garrison in Teruel.

      On December 15, Republican forces launched an encirclement attack. Nationalist fighter planes were shot down by Republican forces on December 17. Fighting in the city center began on December 19. Republican forces fully captured Teruel on December 22. Despite heavy casualties, Republican forces recaptured Teruel, aided by bombing support from Italian and German forces.

        The Republican forces blew up bridges, thwarting the Nationalist advance on January 2, 1938. After the last stronghold was blown up on January 8, the high ground surrounding Teruel fell back to the Nationalists. On January 22, they encircled the Republican forces liberating Teruel. By February 7, the Nationalist forces had completely encircled the Republican forces, making a breakout impossible. The Republican forces were ordered to retreat, but many soldiers were killed or captured during the withdrawal. On February 22, the Nationalist forces reoccupied Teruel.

In December 1937, the Japanese army entered Nanjing waving the Rising Sun flag at the city gates. Numerous Japanese soldiers at Nanjing's Zhonghua Gate stared at the scattered corpses of the many Chinese who had been massacred.

    Japanese troops waved the Rising Sun flag at the gates of Nanjing as they entered the city. Numerous Japanese soldiers at Nanjing's Zhonghua Gate stared at the scattered corpses of massacred Chinese people. The three characters “Zhonghua Gate” were left by the Chinese garrison troops, while the four characters “Swear to avenge the nation's humiliation” were inscribed on the gate's walls.

  The Kwantung Army was promoted from the Shanghai Expeditionary Army to the Central China Expeditionary Army. Pursuing the Chinese forces, it prepared to advance on Nanjing. When the Expeditionary Army strongly advocated occupying Nanjing, the order to occupy Nanjing was finally issued on December 1. On November 20, the Imperial General Headquarters was established, marking the full-scale escalation of the Incident into war. However, the Imperial General Headquarters severed ties with the Japanese government and began acting increasingly arbitrarily. 

   The Kwantung Army entered Nanjing on December 10 and finally occupied it on December 13. The Japanese army committed a massacre in Nanjing. Defenseless civilians were captured, humiliated without reason, and slaughtered. In Nanjing alone, up to 50,000 women and children were killed. It is estimated that up to 300,000 non-combatants were killed in the fighting between Shanghai and Nanjing. In addition, looting of civilian homes was rampant, with Japanese soldiers transporting stolen goods using looted automobiles and carts. The Chinese people's resolve to resist grew ever stronger. The Nationalist Government, refusing to yield and defying Japanese expectations, relocated its capital to Hankou and strengthened its policy of resistance.